Methodology Resources-Individual

The Center for Family Research studies the reciprocal impact of children, their caregivers, and the broader community context on health and psychological adjustment among African American families living in the rural South. In recent years, we have examined how risk factors such as racial discrimination and poverty affect health outcomes for this population by studying the effects of stress on biological aging, behavioral factors, and substance abuse. This page provides researchers with some of the tools and methodologies used by CFR and as well as some methodology presentations and handouts created over the years.

Methods and Measures

Measures

For more than two decades, scientists at the Center for Family Research have sought to employ measures that are psychometrically-robust, developmentally-appropriate, and contextually-sensitive. This page includes information about measures and methodologies developed for CFR-sponsored research studies with a focus on rural, African American populations. The development of these measures included use of focus groups representative of the population being studied. This group provided item-by-item input on the appropriateness of the items as well as other suggestions for procedures.

These two publications provide details about the process of developing and testing the measures:

Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1998). Maternal resources, parenting practices, and child competence in rural, single‐parent African American families. Child development, 69(3), 803-816.
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., … & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five‐year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5), 1170-1189.

Perceived discrimination

This scale consists of items from a revised version of the Schedule of Racist Events (SRE; Landrine & Klonoff, 1996). The SRE was designed for adult respondents, and it revised was to be developmentally appropriate for youths in late childhood through adolescence. The revisions included simplifying the language and replacing items dealing with discrimination in the workplace with items about discriminatory behaviors in the community. The items in the revised SRE assess the frequency during the past year with which the respondent perceived specific discriminatory behaviors. Thirteen items were assessed in the FACHS study data collection, with responses ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (several times). Nine items were assessed in SHAPE study data collection, with responses ranging from 0 (never happened) to 2 (happened a lot).

About the revision

The first step in the revision process involved presentation of the revised scale to focus groups of African American primary caregivers and youths of the same age as those in the study population; the second step included psychometric and validity analyses. In the first step, the revised scale was presented to four focus groups. Two of the groups each included 10 African American primary caregivers with a child the age of the children targeted in this study; the other two groups each included 10 rural African American youths aged 10 – 12 years. The group members were asked to indicate whether the revised scale adequately covered the discriminatory events that children and adolescents would encounter in their communities and to suggest wording changes that would make the scale easy for youths to understand. All four focus groups reported that the revised scale effectively covered the discriminatory experiences that youths in their communities might experience. The analyses executed in the second step confirmed the scale’s reliability. Its validity was demonstrated through its association with variables that the literature suggests would be associated with perceived discriminatory experiences, such as anger, a hostile world view, depression, and conduct problems (Clark et al. 1999; Landrine & Klonoff,1996), both in contemporaneous (Simons et al., 2002)and 2-year longitudinal assessments (Gibbons et al.,2004). These associations remained robust when family income, financial stress, negative life events, and parental education were controlled.

From Brody, et. al. (2006)

From FACHS study

  1. In the last year how often… Has someone said something insulting to you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  2. In the last year how often…Has a store-owner, sales clerk, or person working at a place of business treated you in a disrespectful way just because of your race or ethnic background?
  3. In the last year how often…Have the police hassled you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  4. In the last year how often…Has someone ignored you or excluded you from some activity just because of your race or ethnic background?
  5. In the last year how often…Has someone suspected you of doing something wrong just because of your race or ethnic background?
  6. In the last year how often…Has someone yelled a racial slur or racial insult at you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  7. In the last year how often…Has someone threatened to harm you physically just because of your race or ethnic background?
  8. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who are surprised that you, given your race or ethnic background, did something really well?
  9. In the last year how often…Have you been treated unfairly just because of your race or ethnic background?
  10. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who didn’t expect you to do well just because of your race or ethnic background?
  11. In the last year how often…Has someone discouraged you from trying to achieve an important goal just because of your race or ethnic background?
  12. In the last year how often…Have your close friends been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?
  13. In the last year how often…Have members of your family been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?

 

From SHAPE study

  1. How often have you been ignored, overlooked, or not given service because of your race?
  2. How often have you been treated rudely or disrespectfully because of your race?
  3. How often have you been blamed for something or treated suspiciously (as if you have done something or will do something
  4. How often did others respond to you as if they were afraid because of your race?
  5. How often have you been watched or followed while in public because of your race?
  6. How often have you been treated as if you were “stupid” or been “talked to like you were slow” because of your race?
  7. How often have your ideas or opinions been put down, ignored or belittled because of your race?
  8. How often have you heard or been told an offensive racist joke or comment?
  9. How often have you been called a name or harassed because of your race?

Studies employing this measure

FACHS study

Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., … & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five‐year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5), 1170-1189.

SHAPE study

Brody, G. H., Miller, G. E., Yu, T., Beach, S. R., & Chen, E. (2016). Supportive family environments ameliorate the link between racial discrimination and epigenetic aging: A replication across two longitudinal cohorts. Psychological science, 27(4), 530-541.

Drug Use Willingness

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), youths’ willingness to use drugs is measured with three items. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all) to 3 (very).

“Suppose you were with a group of friends and there were some drugs there that you could have if you wanted. How willing would you be to do the following things:

  1. take some and use them;
  2. use enough to get high;
  3. take some with you to use later?”

 

Studies employing this measure

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917.

 

From FACHS study

  1. In the last year how often… Has someone said something insulting to you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  2. In the last year how often…Has a store-owner, sales clerk, or person working at a place of business treated you in a disrespectful way just because of your race or ethnic background?
  3. In the last year how often…Have the police hassled you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  4. In the last year how often…Has someone ignored you or excluded you from some activity just because of your race or ethnic background?
  5. In the last year how often…Has someone suspected you of doing something wrong just because of your race or ethnic background?
  6. In the last year how often…Has someone yelled a racial slur or racial insult at you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  7. In the last year how often…Has someone threatened to harm you physically just because of your race or ethnic background?
  8. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who are surprised that you, given your race or ethnic background, did something really well?
  9. In the last year how often…Have you been treated unfairly just because of your race or ethnic background?
  10. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who didn’t expect you to do well just because of your race or ethnic background?
  11. In the last year how often…Has someone discouraged you from trying to achieve an important goal just because of your race or ethnic background?
  12. In the last year how often…Have your close friends been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?
  13. In the last year how often…Have members of your family been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?

 

From SHAPE study

  1. How often have you been ignored, overlooked, or not given service because of your race?
  2. How often have you been treated rudely or disrespectfully because of your race?
  3. How often have you been blamed for something or treated suspiciously (as if you have done something or will do something
  4. How often did others respond to you as if they were afraid because of your race?
  5. How often have you been watched or followed while in public because of your race?
  6. How often have you been treated as if you were “stupid” or been “talked to like you were slow” because of your race?
  7. How often have your ideas or opinions been put down, ignored or belittled because of your race?
  8. How often have you heard or been told an offensive racist joke or comment?
  9. How often have you been called a name or harassed because of your race?

Studies employing this measure

FACHS study

Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., … & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five‐year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5), 1170-1189.

SHAPE study

Brody, G. H., Miller, G. E., Yu, T., Beach, S. R., & Chen, E. (2016). Supportive family environments ameliorate the link between racial discrimination and epigenetic aging: A replication across two longitudinal cohorts. Psychological science, 27(4), 530-541.

Drug Use Willingness

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), youths’ willingness to use drugs is measured with three items. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all) to 3 (very).

“Suppose you were with a group of friends and there were some drugs there that you could have if you wanted. How willing would you be to do the following things:

  1. take some and use them;
  2. use enough to get high;
  3. take some with you to use later?”

 

Studies employing this measure

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917.

 

Prototypical images of drinkers

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), this measure assesses youths’ general thoughts about (i.e., prototypes) of individuals who drink. The measure includes 5 questions rated from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very).

“Take a moment to think about the type of person your age who frequently drinks alcohol. We are not talking about anyone in particular, just your image of people your age who frequently drink alcohol.”

  1. how popular would you consider this person
  2. how smart would you consider this person
  3. how cool would you consider this person
  4. how attractive (good looking) would you consider this person
  5. how dull (boring) would you consider this person
  6. how similar do you consider yourself to be to alcohol-drinking peers

 

Studies employing this measure:

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917

 

Masculine Attributes Questionnaire

This scale consists of 18 items, with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), which assess beliefs and attitudes about masculinity. This scale is composed of two 9-item subscales: reputation-based attributes and respect-based attributes.

Reputation-based

  1. A real man can handle himself in a fight
  2. A real man makes his enemies afraid of him
  3. A real man has children by many different women
  4. A real man carries a lot of cash in his pocket AND shows it off
  5. A real man puts his male friends (bros) before his girlfriends
  6. A real man has sex with a lot of different women
  7. A real man shows off expensive jewelry
  8. A real man has a reputation as a ladies man
  9. A real man has a reputation as a tough guy

 

Respect-based

  1. A real man has a good paying job
  2. A real man works to get a good education
  3. A real man gets married or has a committed relationship with one woman
  4. A real man spends a lot of time with his children
  5. A real man provides for his children
  6. A real man works hard to get ahead
  7. A real man is a religious person
  8. A real man obeys the law
  9. A real man has a good job

 

Studies employing this measure

Kogan, S. M., Cho, J., Barnum, S., & Brown, G. L. (2015). Correlates of sexual partner concurrency among rural African American men. Public Health Reports,130,392–399. Retrieved from http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3373
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2017). Development and validation of the masculine attributes questionnaire. American journal of men’s health, 11(4), 941-951.

Prototypical images of drinkers

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), this measure assesses youths’ general thoughts about (i.e., prototypes) of individuals who drink. The measure includes 5 questions rated from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very).

“Take a moment to think about the type of person your age who frequently drinks alcohol. We are not talking about anyone in particular, just your image of people your age who frequently drink alcohol.”

  1. how popular would you consider this person
  2. how smart would you consider this person
  3. how cool would you consider this person
  4. how attractive (good looking) would you consider this person
  5. how dull (boring) would you consider this person
  6. how similar do you consider yourself to be to alcohol-drinking peers

 

Studies employing this measure:

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917

 

About the revision

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), this measure assesses youths’ general thoughts about (i.e., prototypes) of individuals who drink. The measure includes 5 questions rated from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very).

“Take a moment to think about the type of person your age who frequently drinks alcohol. We are not talking about anyone in particular, just your image of people your age who frequently drink alcohol.”

  1. how popular would you consider this person
  2. how smart would you consider this person
  3. how cool would you consider this person
  4. how attractive (good looking) would you consider this person
  5. how dull (boring) would you consider this person
  6. how similar do you consider yourself to be to alcohol-drinking peers

 

Studies employing this measure:

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917

 

Masculine Attributes Questionnaire

This scale consists of 18 items, with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), which assess beliefs and attitudes about masculinity. This scale is composed of two 9-item subscales: reputation-based attributes and respect-based attributes.

Reputation-based

  1. A real man can handle himself in a fight
  2. A real man makes his enemies afraid of him
  3. A real man has children by many different women
  4. A real man carries a lot of cash in his pocket AND shows it off
  5. A real man puts his male friends (bros) before his girlfriends
  6. A real man has sex with a lot of different women
  7. A real man shows off expensive jewelry
  8. A real man has a reputation as a ladies man
  9. A real man has a reputation as a tough guy

 

Respect-based

  1. A real man has a good paying job
  2. A real man works to get a good education
  3. A real man gets married or has a committed relationship with one woman
  4. A real man spends a lot of time with his children
  5. A real man provides for his children
  6. A real man works hard to get ahead
  7. A real man is a religious person
  8. A real man obeys the law
  9. A real man has a good job

 

Studies employing this measure

Kogan, S. M., Cho, J., Barnum, S., & Brown, G. L. (2015). Correlates of sexual partner concurrency among rural African American men. Public Health Reports,130,392–399. Retrieved from http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3373
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2017). Development and validation of the masculine attributes questionnaire. American journal of men’s health, 11(4), 941-951.

From FACHS study

  1. In the last year how often… Has someone said something insulting to you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  2. In the last year how often…Has a store-owner, sales clerk, or person working at a place of business treated you in a disrespectful way just because of your race or ethnic background?
  3. In the last year how often…Have the police hassled you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  4. In the last year how often…Has someone ignored you or excluded you from some activity just because of your race or ethnic background?
  5. In the last year how often…Has someone suspected you of doing something wrong just because of your race or ethnic background?
  6. In the last year how often…Has someone yelled a racial slur or racial insult at you just because of your race or ethnic background?
  7. In the last year how often…Has someone threatened to harm you physically just because of your race or ethnic background?
  8. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who are surprised that you, given your race or ethnic background, did something really well?
  9. In the last year how often…Have you been treated unfairly just because of your race or ethnic background?
  10. In the last year how often…Have you encountered people who didn’t expect you to do well just because of your race or ethnic background?
  11. In the last year how often…Has someone discouraged you from trying to achieve an important goal just because of your race or ethnic background?
  12. In the last year how often…Have your close friends been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?
  13. In the last year how often…Have members of your family been treated unfairly just because of their race or ethnic background?

 

From SHAPE study

  1. How often have you been ignored, overlooked, or not given service because of your race?
  2. How often have you been treated rudely or disrespectfully because of your race?
  3. How often have you been blamed for something or treated suspiciously (as if you have done something or will do something
  4. How often did others respond to you as if they were afraid because of your race?
  5. How often have you been watched or followed while in public because of your race?
  6. How often have you been treated as if you were “stupid” or been “talked to like you were slow” because of your race?
  7. How often have your ideas or opinions been put down, ignored or belittled because of your race?
  8. How often have you heard or been told an offensive racist joke or comment?
  9. How often have you been called a name or harassed because of your race?

Studies employing this measure

FACHS study

Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., … & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five‐year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5), 1170-1189.

SHAPE study

Brody, G. H., Miller, G. E., Yu, T., Beach, S. R., & Chen, E. (2016). Supportive family environments ameliorate the link between racial discrimination and epigenetic aging: A replication across two longitudinal cohorts. Psychological science, 27(4), 530-541.

Drug Use Willingness

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), youths’ willingness to use drugs is measured with three items. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all) to 3 (very).

“Suppose you were with a group of friends and there were some drugs there that you could have if you wanted. How willing would you be to do the following things:

  1. take some and use them;
  2. use enough to get high;
  3. take some with you to use later?”

 

Studies employing this measure

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917.

 

Prototypical images of drinkers

Informed by the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1997; Gibbons et al., 2004), this measure assesses youths’ general thoughts about (i.e., prototypes) of individuals who drink. The measure includes 5 questions rated from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very).

“Take a moment to think about the type of person your age who frequently drinks alcohol. We are not talking about anyone in particular, just your image of people your age who frequently drink alcohol.”

  1. how popular would you consider this person
  2. how smart would you consider this person
  3. how cool would you consider this person
  4. how attractive (good looking) would you consider this person
  5. how dull (boring) would you consider this person
  6. how similar do you consider yourself to be to alcohol-drinking peers

 

Studies employing this measure:

Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. (2015). A differential susceptibility analysis reveals the “who and how” about adolescents’ responses to preventive interventions: Tests of first-and second-generation Gene× Intervention hypotheses. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 37-49.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., … & Chen, Y. F. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900-917

 

Masculine Attributes Questionnaire

This scale consists of 18 items, with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), which assess beliefs and attitudes about masculinity. This scale is composed of two 9-item subscales: reputation-based attributes and respect-based attributes.

Reputation-based

  1. A real man can handle himself in a fight
  2. A real man makes his enemies afraid of him
  3. A real man has children by many different women
  4. A real man carries a lot of cash in his pocket AND shows it off
  5. A real man puts his male friends (bros) before his girlfriends
  6. A real man has sex with a lot of different women
  7. A real man shows off expensive jewelry
  8. A real man has a reputation as a ladies man
  9. A real man has a reputation as a tough guy

 

Respect-based

  1. A real man has a good paying job
  2. A real man works to get a good education
  3. A real man gets married or has a committed relationship with one woman
  4. A real man spends a lot of time with his children
  5. A real man provides for his children
  6. A real man works hard to get ahead
  7. A real man is a religious person
  8. A real man obeys the law
  9. A real man has a good job

 

Studies employing this measure

Kogan, S. M., Cho, J., Barnum, S., & Brown, G. L. (2015). Correlates of sexual partner concurrency among rural African American men. Public Health Reports,130,392–399. Retrieved from http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3373
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2017). Development and validation of the masculine attributes questionnaire. American journal of men’s health, 11(4), 941-951.

Masculine Attributes Questionnaire

This scale consists of 18 items, with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), which assess beliefs and attitudes about masculinity. This scale is composed of two 9-item subscales: reputation-based attributes and respect-based attributes.

Reputation-based

  1. A real man can handle himself in a fight
  2. A real man makes his enemies afraid of him
  3. A real man has children by many different women
  4. A real man carries a lot of cash in his pocket AND shows it off
  5. A real man puts his male friends (bros) before his girlfriends
  6. A real man has sex with a lot of different women
  7. A real man shows off expensive jewelry
  8. A real man has a reputation as a ladies man
  9. A real man has a reputation as a tough guy

 

Respect-based

  1. A real man has a good paying job
  2. A real man works to get a good education
  3. A real man gets married or has a committed relationship with one woman
  4. A real man spends a lot of time with his children
  5. A real man provides for his children
  6. A real man works hard to get ahead
  7. A real man is a religious person
  8. A real man obeys the law
  9. A real man has a good job

 

Studies employing this measure

Kogan, S. M., Cho, J., Barnum, S., & Brown, G. L. (2015). Correlates of sexual partner concurrency among rural African American men. Public Health Reports,130,392–399. Retrieved from http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3373
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2017). Development and validation of the masculine attributes questionnaire. American journal of men’s health, 11(4), 941-951.